Historically, leadership roles in military, civil, religious, and organizational affairs have been predominantly held by men across most societies due to patriarchal norms, legal restrictions, and cultural expectations. However, women have played leading roles in these areas throughout history, though these instances are often exceptional—arising from unique circumstances like inheritance, crisis, personal charisma, or innovation rather than as a standard practice. Below, I’ll outline examples from various eras and regions, drawing on documented historical figures and patterns. These cases highlight that while women leaders were not the norm, they were far from nonexistent and frequently demonstrated remarkable impact.

Military Affairs

Women have led military campaigns and forces in various cultures, but typically in exceptional situations such as defending homelands during invasions, filling voids left by male rulers, or leveraging royal status. In many cases, they disguised themselves or operated in male-dominated hierarchies.

• Ancient examples include Fu Hao, a consort of a Shang Dynasty king in China (c. 1200 BC), who commanded armies of up to 13,000 soldiers in battles against enemies, as evidenced by oracle bone inscriptions. 10 Tomyris, queen of the Massagetae (c. 530 BC), led her nomadic forces to defeat Persian king Cyrus the Great in battle. 17 Artemisia I of Caria (c. 480 BC) commanded ships in the Persian navy during the Greco-Persian Wars, advising Xerxes and fighting at Salamis. 17 The Trung sisters (c. 40 AD) led Vietnamese rebellions against Chinese rule, establishing a short-lived independent kingdom. 13
• In the medieval and early modern periods, Boudica (c. 60 AD) rallied Briton tribes against Roman occupation, leading tens of thousands in revolt. 17 Joan of Arc (1412–1431) commanded French forces during the Hundred Years’ War, turning the tide at Orléans despite being a peasant teenager. 11 Aethelflaed, Lady of the Mercians (c. 870–918), governed Mercia and led armies against Viking invasions in Anglo-Saxon England. 27
• More recent cases include Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi (1828–1858), who led Indian forces against British colonial rule during the 1857 rebellion, and Yaa Asantewaa (1840–1921), who commanded Ashanti warriors against British forces in Ghana. 13 In the U.S. military, women like Col. Ruby Bradley (decorated WWII nurse and POW survivor) and Gen. Ann Dunwoody (first female four-star general in 2008) broke barriers, but these were firsts in a historically male institution. 14 12

These women often emerged in times of national crisis or as regents, making their roles exceptional rather than routine.

Civil Affairs (Rulers, Governments, and Administration)

In civil leadership, women have ruled as queens, empresses, and governors, particularly in monarchies where inheritance laws allowed female succession—though this was often only when male heirs were absent, making it exceptional in patrilineal systems. Matrilineal societies (e.g., some in Africa or Native American groups) saw more normalized female authority.

• Ancient rulers include Hatshepsut (c. 1479–1458 BC), pharaoh of Egypt who ruled as regent then full king, overseeing prosperous trade and building projects. 24 Sobekneferu (c. 1806–1802 BC), another Egyptian pharaoh, and Wu Zetian (624–705 AD), the only female emperor in Chinese history, who expanded the Tang Dynasty’s influence. 19 Cleopatra VII (69–30 BC) governed Egypt independently, forging alliances with Rome. 24
• Medieval and Renaissance figures abound in Europe and Asia: Razia Sultana (1205–1240) ruled the Delhi Sultanate as the first female Muslim ruler in South Asia. 19 Isabella I of Castile (1451–1504) unified Spain and funded Columbus’s voyages. 19 Elizabeth I (1533–1603) led England through the Elizabethan Age, defeating the Spanish Armada. 27 Maria Theresa (1717–1780) ruled the Habsburg Empire, modernizing administration amid wars. 19 Catherine the Great (1729–1796) expanded Russia’s territory and enlightened reforms. 26
• In Africa and elsewhere, figures like Amina of Zazzau (16th century, Nigeria) conquered territories as a warrior queen, and Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba (1583–1663, Angola) resisted Portuguese colonization through diplomacy and warfare. 20

While lists of female monarchs number in the hundreds across history, they represent a small fraction of total rulers, often facing challenges to their legitimacy due to gender.

Religious Affairs

Religious leadership for women has varied by faith and era. In polytheistic ancient religions, women commonly served as priestesses, but in monotheistic traditions like Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, top roles were largely male-exclusive, with women leading in exceptional, often mystical or subordinate capacities like abbesses.

• Ancient: Enheduanna (c. 2285–2250 BC), high priestess of the moon god in Sumer, is the earliest known author, composing hymns. 13 The Pythia at Delphi (ancient Greece) was a female oracle guiding leaders like kings and generals. 35 In Egypt, women like those in the cult of Hathor held priestly roles.
• Christianity: Early church artifacts suggest women served as clergy, including deaconesses and possibly presbyters, though this was later restricted. 32 Medieval abbesses wielded significant power; Hilda of Whitby (614–680) hosted the Synod of Whitby and influenced church policy. 36 Hildegard von Bingen (1098–1179) was an abbess, visionary, composer, and advisor to popes and emperors. 28 Catherine of Siena (1347–1380), a mystic, influenced papal decisions and was named a Doctor of the Church. 28 Some abbesses were titled “sacerdos” (priest), indicating quasi-clerical status. 29
• Other faiths: In Islam, Aisha bint Abi Bakr (613–678) was a scholar and hadith transmitter, leading a rebellion post-Muhammad’s death. 13 In modern times, women like Ellen Johnson Sirleaf (Methodist, Liberia’s president) used faith for peace leadership. 37

Women’s religious leadership was more common in convents or as influencers rather than hierarchical heads, marking it as exceptional in structured religions.

Organizational Entities (Guilds, Businesses, Institutions)

Organizational leadership, such as in guilds, trade, or early businesses, was historically limited for women due to property laws and exclusion from professions. Women often entered via widowhood, family ties, or entrepreneurship in “feminine” sectors, making successes exceptional.

• Medieval and early modern: In European guilds, women participated as members or masters, especially in textiles or brewing; widows like those in 14th-century London guilds took over workshops. 45 Mary Katharine Goddard (1738–1816) ran a printing business and published the Declaration of Independence. 46 Rebecca Lukens (1794–1854) led an iron mill, becoming America’s first female industrialist. 46
• 19th–20th centuries: Eliza Lucas Pinckney (1722–1793) managed plantations and developed indigo dyeing in colonial America. 43 Madam C.J. Walker (1867–1919) built a hair care empire, becoming the first self-made female millionaire in the U.S. 47 Coco Chanel (1883–1971) founded a fashion house revolutionizing women’s clothing. 43 In non-Western contexts, women like those in West African markets held economic power through trade guilds.

Prior to the 20th century, women comprised a tiny percentage of business owners or guild masters, often navigating barriers like coverture laws that subsumed their property under husbands.

In summary, while women have left indelible marks as leaders in these fields—demonstrating capability equal to men’s—their roles were generally exceptional, confined to specific cultural pockets, crises, or inheritance systems. This pattern persisted until modern movements for gender equality expanded opportunities. Variations exist; for instance, matriarchal societies like the Minangkabau in Indonesia or certain Native American tribes normalized female authority more than patriarchal ones like ancient Rome or medieval Europe.