The partition of India in 1947, which divided British India into the independent dominions of India and Pakistan, was the culmination of decades of communal tensions, political negotiations, and British colonial policies aimed at a swift decolonization. The process was driven by the “two-nation theory,” which posited that Hindus and Muslims constituted separate nations, leading to demands for a Muslim-majority state. 0 11 This division was formalized through the Indian Independence Act 1947, passed by the British Parliament on July 18, 1947, with independence taking effect at midnight on August 14–15, 1947. 0 11

Historical Process and Key Steps

The roots of partition trace back to early 20th-century events, such as the 1905 partition of Bengal by British Viceroy Lord Curzon, which separated the province along religious lines and sparked widespread protests, including the Swadeshi movement. 0 This led to the formation of the All-India Muslim League in 1906 to advocate for Muslim interests and separate electorates. 0 The 1916 Lucknow Pact between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League aimed at joint demands for self-government, but tensions grew with the emergence of the two-nation theory in the 1920s and 1930s. 0

During World War II (1939–1945), the Congress resigned from provincial governments in protest of Britain’s unilateral declaration of war involving India, while the Muslim League supported the British war effort, gaining political ground. 0 11 The 1940 Lahore Resolution by the Muslim League formally demanded autonomous Muslim-majority states in northwestern and eastern India. 0 11 Post-war, the British Labour government under Clement Attlee sought rapid decolonization due to economic strain and communal violence. 22 The 1946 Cabinet Mission proposed a federal India with grouped provinces, but it failed due to disagreements between the Congress and League over power-sharing. 0 11

Escalating violence, such as the 1946 Direct Action Day called by the Muslim League, resulted in the Calcutta Killings (around 4,000–5,000 deaths) and widespread riots, pressuring leaders toward partition. 0 22 In February 1947, Attlee announced Britain’s intent to leave by June 1948. 22 Viceroy Lord Mountbatten, appointed in March 1947, accelerated the timeline to August 1947, proposing the Mountbatten Plan (or 3 June Plan) for partition. 0 11 22 This plan divided Punjab and Bengal provinces based on religious majorities, with boundaries drawn by the Radcliffe Boundary Commission (led by Cyril Radcliffe) in July–August 1947. 0 11 The process resulted in massive displacement (12–15 million people) and deaths (200,000–2 million) from communal violence. 0 11 22

From a Pakistani perspective, the partition is often viewed as a necessary outcome of British “divide and rule” policies that exacerbated Hindu-Muslim differences, with the Muslim League’s demands seen as a legitimate response to fears of Hindu dominance in a united India. 19 21 Indian perspectives frequently emphasize the tragedy of division and the role of communalism, while blaming the League’s intransigence and British haste. 19 21

Consent from the Population and Discussions with Political Parties

There was no direct consent from the population at large through a nationwide referendum or plebiscite; the decision relied on elite negotiations among political leaders and British authorities, amid fears of civil war. 0 11 22 Discussions primarily involved the Indian National Congress (representing a broad, mostly Hindu-majority base), the All-India Muslim League (advocating for Muslims), and British officials like Mountbatten, who mediated talks in 1947. 0 11 The Mountbatten Plan was presented to leaders on June 2–3, 1947, and accepted by Congress (at its All India Congress Committee meeting) and the League, though with reservations. 0 4

Limited local mechanisms included:

• Votes in provincial legislative assemblies for Punjab and Bengal to decide on partition (simple majority, separated by religious groups). 0
• A referendum in the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP), where voters chose to join Pakistan (over 50% turnout, majority in favor). 0
• A referendum in Sylhet district (Assam), which opted to join East Pakistan. 0

For princely states (e.g., Hyderabad, Kashmir), rulers decided accession, often influenced by geography and population demographics, without popular votes. 0 Overall, consent was inferred through party representatives rather than direct public input, as violence and urgency dominated. 22

Proponents and Opponents

Proponents:

• Muhammad Ali Jinnah and the All-India Muslim League: Primary advocates for partition, viewing Pakistan as essential for Muslim self-determination and protection from Hindu-majority rule, as per the 1940 Lahore Resolution. 0 11 22 From a Pakistani viewpoint, this is seen as a triumph of Muslim nationalism against colonial and majority oppression. 19
• British authorities (e.g., Lord Mountbatten, Prime Minister Clement Attlee): Supported partition as a pragmatic, expedient solution to enable a quick withdrawal, avoiding prolonged conflict amid post-WWII exhaustion. 0 11 22
• Some Congress leaders (e.g., Vallabhbhai Patel, Jawaharlal Nehru pragmatically): Initially opposed but accepted partition by 1947 to consolidate power in a stable India, removing the League’s veto in a united setup and averting civil war. 0 22

Opponents:

• Mahatma Gandhi: Strongly against division on moral and philosophical grounds, favoring a united, secular India; he fasted to curb violence but could not sway the decision. 0 4 22
• Indian National Congress as a whole (initially): Advocated for a unified India with federal safeguards for minorities. 0 11
• Muslim nationalists (e.g., Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Jamiat Ulema-e-Hind, Maulana Husain Ahmad Madani): Opposed the two-nation theory, supporting composite nationalism and a united India. 0 16
• Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan and NWFP Congress allies: Known as the “Frontier Gandhi,” he opposed partition and boycotted the NWFP referendum, advocating for Pashtun autonomy or unity with India. 0
• Other communities (e.g., Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-Indians, Parsis): Largely opposed, fearing marginalization in the new states. 16

The partition remains a contentious event, with lasting impacts on Indo-Pakistani relations, including wars and ongoing border disputes. 5 21