The term “dhimmi”in Islam refers to a non-Muslim individual or community living under Muslim rule in an Islamic state. It derives from the Arabic word meaning “protected person” or “people of the pact” (ahl al-dhimma), denoting a legal status granted to certain religious minorities, primarily “People of the Book” such as Jews, Christians, and Sabians, but historically extended to others like Zoroastrians, Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs, and Jains in various regions. This status is rooted in Islamic jurisprudence (Sharia) and early historical precedents, such as the Constitution of Medina and treaties during the Prophet Muhammad’s time, where non-Muslims were offered protection in exchange for loyalty and specific obligations. 10 11

Rights of Dhimmis

Dhimmis were afforded several protections and freedoms under this system, which aimed to ensure their security and autonomy while integrating them into society:

• Protection of life, property, and honor: They were safeguarded against harm, with their lives and possessions considered inviolable, equivalent to those of Muslims in many legal contexts.
• Freedom of religion: They could practice their faith privately without compulsion to convert, as emphasized in Quranic principles (e.g., “There is no compulsion in religion”). This included maintaining existing places of worship, though new constructions often required permission.
• Legal autonomy: Dhimmis could govern internal community affairs using their own religious laws and courts (e.g., Jewish Halakhic courts or Christian ecclesiastical ones for personal matters like marriage and inheritance), provided they did not conflict with Islamic public order.
• Access to justice and welfare: They were entitled to impartial treatment in Muslim courts, with oaths adapted to their beliefs, and in some cases, state support for the needy, elderly, or disabled through exemptions or aid.
• Economic and social participation: Dhimmis could engage in trade, hold certain administrative positions, and consume items forbidden to Muslims (e.g., alcohol or pork) within their communities.
  These rights were generally more tolerant than those in contemporary non-Islamic societies (e.g., medieval Europe), though enforcement varied by ruler and era, with periods of relative equality in places like al-Andalus or the Ottoman Empire. 10 9 11

Obligations of Dhimmis

In return for protection, dhimmis had specific duties and restrictions, which underscored their subordinate status and helped fund the state’s defense:

• Payment of jizya: A poll tax levied on able-bodied, free adult males (exempting women, children, the elderly, disabled, slaves, and those in poverty). This was in lieu of zakat (Muslim alms) and military service, often comparable to or lower than taxes under previous Byzantine or Persian rule. Rates varied historically (e.g., 12-48 dirhams in the early Abbasid period).
• Loyalty to the state: They were required to support the Islamic government and not aid its enemies.
• Social and symbolic restrictions: These included wearing distinctive clothing or badges (e.g., honey-colored garments or patches), not carrying weapons, riding donkeys instead of horses (and dismounting if requested by a Muslim), avoiding public displays of religion (e.g., no loud bells or processions), not building homes taller than Muslims’, and refraining from proselytizing or criticizing Islam. They could not hold positions of authority over Muslims or prevent family members from converting.
  These obligations were codified in documents like the Pact of Umar (likely compiled in the 9th century) and were enforced unevenly—stricter under rulers like Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil, but often ignored in practice during prosperous times. 10 9 11

Responsibilities of the Government in Their Protection

The Islamic state or government bore primary responsibility for upholding the dhimma (pact of protection), viewing it as a contractual obligation derived from Islamic texts and prophetic traditions:

• Military and security defense: The state was duty-bound to protect dhimmis from external aggression and internal harm, using jizya revenues partly for this purpose. Muslims were obligated to defend non-Muslims as they would their own, with historical examples like Caliph Abu Bakr’s instructions to armies to spare non-combatants.
• Ensuring justice and fair treatment: Governments had to provide impartial legal recourse, punish violations against dhimmis (e.g., a Muslim harming a dhimmi could face severe penalties), and prevent forced conversions. Caliphs like Umar ibn al-Khattab exemplified this by holding officials accountable for mistreatment.
• Upholding the covenant: This included respecting religious freedoms, preserving sacred sites (e.g., Sultan Suleiman’s restoration of the Western Wall), and extending welfare or exemptions as needed. In exchange, the state could recruit dhimmis for non-combat roles in border areas, temporarily waiving jizya.
• Communal oversight: Under systems like the Ottoman millet, the government delegated internal governance to dhimmi leaders while maintaining overall authority.
  The system positioned dhimmis as second-class citizens with inequalities, but it facilitated coexistence and contributions to Islamic civilization. It was largely abolished in the 19th-20th centuries (e.g., Ottoman reforms in 1856) due to modernization and external pressures, though echoes persist in some modern discussions. 10 9 11

Jizya vs tax

Definitions

Taxes in general refer to compulsory financial contributions imposed by governments on individuals, businesses, or transactions to fund public expenditures. These can include income taxes, sales taxes, property taxes, and more, and are typically applied to all eligible citizens or residents regardless of religion or ethnicity in modern secular states.

Jizya (or jizyah) is a historical per capita tax levied on non-Muslim adult males (dhimmis) living under Islamic rule, as outlined in Islamic legal traditions derived from the Quran and hadith. 0 It was not applied to Muslims, women, children, the elderly, the disabled, or the poor, and served as a form of tribute or poll tax. 6

Key Differences

• Who Pays: General taxes are broadly applied based on economic criteria like income, wealth, or consumption, affecting most adults in a society without religious distinction in secular systems. Jizya, however, was specifically targeted at non-Muslims (primarily Christians, Jews, and sometimes others like Hindus under certain rulers) as a condition of their protected status in an Islamic state. 4 Muslims instead paid zakat, a mandatory charitable contribution (typically 2.5% of wealth), which is not considered a tax but an act of worship. 1
• How It’s Levied: Taxes are often progressive or proportional (e.g., higher rates for higher incomes) and can be collected through various mechanisms like withholding, filings, or point-of-sale. Jizya was a fixed annual poll tax per eligible individual, sometimes graduated by wealth class, and symbolized submission to Islamic authority. 3 It was not a general revenue tool but tied to religious identity, and non-payment could result in loss of protection or conversion pressure. 19
• Purpose: General taxes fund a wide array of government functions, promoting societal welfare without explicit religious ties. Jizya was framed as compensation for state services, including military protection, while exempting non-Muslims from obligatory military service (which Muslims were required to provide) and zakat. 2 Critics argue it reinforced inequality and inferiority of non-Muslims, 20 while proponents view it as a fair exchange for rights and security in a theocratic system. 5

Amounts

• General Taxes: These vary enormously by country, type, and era. For example, modern income tax rates can range from 0% to over 50% of earnings (e.g., top U.S. federal rate at 37%, plus state taxes), sales taxes from 0-20%, and property taxes based on asset value. There is no universal fixed amount, as they adjust to economic conditions and policy.
• Jizya: Historical amounts fluctuated by ruler, region, and time period, but were typically modest relative to incomes. During the Prophet Muhammad’s era, it was around 10 dirhams per year per person, roughly equivalent to a family’s basic expenses for a short period. 12 Under early caliphs like Abu Bakr, it was often 1 dinar (about 4.25 grams of gold) for the poor, 2 for the middle class, and 4 for the wealthy, paid annually by adult males. 9 In the Ottoman Empire, it could be equivalent to a few days’ wages for a laborer, while under Mughal ruler Aurangzeb in India, it was scaled by ability to pay (e.g., 3.5-13.33 rupees based on wealth). 15 Compared to zakat (2.5% of savings), jizya was sometimes lower for the average person but fixed rather than percentage-based. 11 It was not uniformly burdensome but could be resented as discriminatory, especially when abusively high under some rulers. 10

What Payers Are Given in Return

• General Taxes: Payers receive access to public goods and services funded by the state, such as infrastructure (roads, utilities), education, healthcare, social welfare, national defense, law enforcement, and economic stability. These benefits are theoretically universal, though distribution can vary by policy and efficiency.
• Jizya: In exchange, non-Muslim payers (dhimmis) were granted protection from external invasions and internal threats by the Islamic state’s military, exemption from conscription (unlike Muslims), the right to practice their religion freely (with restrictions like no public proselytizing), access to justice systems, and use of public infrastructure. 18 It ensured “no compulsion in religion” by allowing non-Muslims to retain their faith under state safeguard. 21 However, some historical accounts note it came with second-class status, including limitations on building places of worship or holding high office, and could be seen as extortion for basic safety. 27 Proponents emphasize it as a service fee for military and administrative benefits that protected all residents equally. 24