The concept of a “classless society” refers to a social structure without hierarchical divisions based on economic ownership or control of production, where resources are collectively owned and distributed according to need. This idea is most prominently associated with Marxist theory, emerging in the 19th century as a critique of capitalism’s inherent class conflicts between the bourgeoisie (owners) and proletariat (workers). 1 It drew inspiration from earlier egalitarian notions, such as those from the French Revolution’s emphasis on equality, and possibly economists like Charles Fourier, but was formalized by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. 7 3 In their 1848 Communist Manifesto, they envisioned a post-revolutionary society where the proletariat would abolish private property, leading to the withering away of the state and classes altogether, creating a “communist” utopia. 0 5

Timeline of Development and Adoption

The idea evolved gradually but gained traction through revolutionary movements:

• 1840s-1850s: Ideological Foundations. Marx and Engels developed the concept amid industrial Europe’s growing inequalities. In 1847, Engels helped form the Communist League, which commissioned the Manifesto. 12 They argued history was driven by class struggles, culminating in a classless phase after socialism (a transitional dictatorship of the proletariat). 8
• Late 19th-Early 20th Century: Spread and Early Attempts. The idea influenced socialist parties worldwide, but practical adoption began with the 1917 Russian October Revolution, led by Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks. They established the Soviet Union (USSR) in 1922, aiming for a classless society through state control of production. 10 This marked the first large-scale attempt, though Lenin acknowledged it as “state capitalism” initially transitioning to socialism.
• 1920s-1950s: Expansion via Revolutions and World Wars. Post-World War II, communism spread rapidly. In 1949, Mao Zedong’s Chinese Communist Party founded the People’s Republic of China after a civil war. 10 Eastern Europe fell under Soviet influence, with regimes in Poland, Hungary, and others by the late 1940s. The 1959 Cuban Revolution under Fidel Castro established another communist state. 10 By the 1960s-1970s, revolutions in Vietnam (unified 1976), Laos (1975), and elsewhere adopted similar models, often with Soviet or Chinese support. 17 The global communist movement peaked in the mid-20th century, with parties in Europe reorienting toward Marxist-Leninist ideas. 13
• 1980s-1990s: Peak and Decline. At its height in the 1980s, over a third of the world’s population lived under communist regimes, but internal reforms and external pressures led to collapse.

Reasons for Downfall

Communist regimes aiming for classless societies largely collapsed in the late 20th century, particularly in Europe. Key reasons include:

• Economic Inefficiencies and Stagnation. Centralized planning failed to innovate or meet consumer needs, leading to shortages, black markets, and low productivity. In the USSR, Mikhail Gorbachev’s 1980s perestroika (restructuring) attempted market reforms but exposed systemic flaws, combining the worst of capitalism and communism without resolving corruption or bureaucratic inertia. 26 21 20
• Political Repression and Loss of Legitimacy. Regimes relied on authoritarian control, suppressing dissent, which bred resentment. Glasnost (openness) in the USSR allowed criticism, fueling nationalist movements and protests, like those in Eastern Europe in 1989. 22 25 The 1991 USSR dissolution ended the Cold War era of communism.
• External Pressures and Ideological Contradictions. Competition with capitalist economies, arms races, and U.S.-led containment strained resources. Internally, the promise of classlessness clashed with reality, as new elites emerged. 27 24 By 1991, most Eastern Bloc countries transitioned to democracy and markets.

While some regimes fell suddenly due to these factors, others adapted through reforms, avoiding total collapse. 23

Is It Still in Practice?

No country has achieved a truly classless society as Marx envisioned—a stateless, moneyless utopia. 41 However, five nations still officially practice communism or socialism with communist parties in power as of 2025: China, Cuba, Laos, North Korea, and Vietnam. 40 42 43 These are one-party states with state-controlled economies, but they’ve incorporated market elements (e.g., China’s “socialism with Chinese characteristics” allows private enterprise). None are stateless or fully classless; they maintain hierarchies and often face criticism for authoritarianism. 46 44 Small-scale experiments, like Israeli kibbutzim, resemble classless communes but aren’t national systems. 41

Was It Really Classless at Its Peak?

At no point were these societies truly classless; instead, they often represented a new iteration of rulers versus ruled. In the USSR, for example, the Communist Party elite (nomenklatura) formed a privileged class with access to better goods, housing, and power, while workers faced exploitation under state capitalism. 30 31 33 The regime never claimed full classlessness, maintaining class distinctions and a dictatorship that oppressed the proletariat. 30 38 Critics argue this was inherent: abolishing old classes created new ones based on political loyalty, perpetuating inequality under a different guise. 32 35 Similar patterns emerged in China and elsewhere, where party officials became the de facto ruling class. This gap between theory and practice fueled internal resistance and eventual reforms or collapses. 37